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In 1925 archaeologists appear a spectacular discovery of immense urban ruins of two cities Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa divided autonomously by a distance of 640 km only identical in their layout, architecture and building technique.

In 1922 Dr. Rakhal Das Banerjee, the then Archaeological Superintendent of Western Circle noticed a Buddhist stupa at Mahenjo-daro in the Larkana district of sind (at present Islamic republic of pakistan).

A prodigious civilisation lived in the region about 5000 years agone and tied circular the river Indus and its tributaries and thus identified equally the Indus valley civilization.

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Simultaneously Sir Dayaram Sahani discovered some remnants of pre-celebrated historic period at Harappa in Montgomery district of the Punjab (now Pakistan). Digging in both places unearthed valuable materials of a civilization of college order. Earthworks at various other sites at Chandra Daro, Amri, Lohunjo-daro, Noa and Rupar proved that a prodigious civilization lived in the region virtually 5000 years agone and tied round the river Indus and its tributaries and thus identified as the Indus valley civilisation.

Appointment:

During the by two decades substantial additions take been made to our noesis of the Indus civilisation. Numerous excavations take been made to by diverse archaeological agencies both foreign and Indian at different sites of the civilization. The discovery of Naushera in Pakistan has yielded important evidence relating to the actual procedure of transformation from the early to mature Harappan phase.

Information technology is difficult to assert when such a civilisation of high order flourished in the North-Western region of India. We do not get any directly source in shape of inscriptions or whatever written material to say the exact date and time of the civilization. During the procedure of excavation many seals with scripts accept been discovered.

Unfortunately it is nonetheless not possible to decipher the scripts. Every bit a result information embodied in the script are unknown till today. Co-ordinate to John Marshall the then Director General of Archeology, this culture flourished in this vast region roughly betwixt 3250 BC to 2750 BC.

His assertion was on the basis of several similarities noticed between the discoveries of Mahenjo-daro and other ancient civilizations of the globe similar Mesopotamia, Egypt and Babylonia. 2 other smaller sites excavated in recent years in Rojdi in Saurastra and Desalpur in Kutch districts reveals that this civilisation had an extensive expanse of virtually 1600 km from West to East and 1100 km. from North to South much greater than that, occupied jointly past the contemporary civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia.

The site of Harappa is larger than Mahenjo-daro and gives more source materials to know virtually the lost culture. After excavation and careful study of the bachelor sources it is estimated that the boondocks of Mahenjo-daro or the "Mound of the Expressionless" was perhaps built and rebuilt ix times in the lapse of time.

Urban-Town Planning:

The excavation undertaken in various places gives articulate indication that the people of Indus valley were primarily urban people. The Indus cities whether Harappa or Mahenjo-daro in Pakistan or Kalibangan, Lothal or Sarkotada in India shows Town planning of a truly amazing nature. In both the places the cities were built on a uniform plan.

To the west of each was a 'citadel' mound congenital on a high podium of mud-brick and to the east was the boondocks proper the main hub of the residential area. The citadel and the town was further surrounded by a massive brick wall. In fact conscientious planning of the boondocks, fine drainage system, well bundled water supply system show that all possible steps were carefully adopted to brand the boondocks ideal and comfortable for the citizenry.

The street lights arrangement, watch and ward arrangement at night to outwit the law breakers, specific places to throw rubbish and waste materials, public wells in every street, well in every business firm etc. revealed the high sense of applied science and town planning of the people. The main streets some as wide as 30 to 34 anxiety were laid out with peachy skill dividing the cities into blocks within which were networks of narrow lanes.

The streets were quite wide varying from 9 feet to 34 feet in breadth. The corners of the street rounded off perhaps to enable the heavy carts to take turn hands. The streets intersected in right angles and then arranged that the prevailing winds could work as a sort of suction pump and thereby clean the temper automatically. No building was allowed to be constructed arbitrarily and encroaching upon a public highway. The owners of the pottery kilns were not allowed to build the furnaces within the town obviously to save the town from air pollution.

A tourist from England was highly enchanted seeing the idea of advanced and practiced boondocks planning and remarked that the town was very much equivalent to the working of present twenty-four hour period Lancashire. In short the thought and arrangements were so extraordinary that one get a thunder-struck. Drainage organisation managed past the Indus Valley civilisation is indeed unique. The idea and the system were highly scientific and by all ways best of the time. The drainage system of Mahenjo-daro is so elaborate and scientific that similar advanced System was not plant in any town of same artifact.

House drains connected in the main drains running nether the main streets and below many lanes. Drains were fabricated of gypsum, lime and cement, covered with portable stabs. In regular intervals, there were inspection traps and principal-holes for inspection. Primary drains were feet 2½ to 5 ft. broad. The pocket-sized drains were connected with chief drains which helped to pull water chop-chop out of the town. Every house had an independent soak- pit which nerveless all sediments and immune water to period to the main drains passing underneath the chief streets of the town.

Proper intendance was taken to ensure that the house-wives did not throw pass up and dirt in the drains. The extensive drainage system adopted by the people of the Indus Valley unhesitatingly proves that the people of the time had developed a high sense of wellness and sanitation. The people of Indus Valley had generally constructed 3 types of buildings. Such equally abode houses, public halls and public baths. Burnt bricks were used and stock-still skillfully with the help of mud and mortar for the construction of houses and other dissimilar structures of the towns. Buildings were of different sizes only mostly were single or double storied.

From the existence of a stare case information technology is evident that double storied dwelling houses were widely prevalent. The houses were furnished with paved floors and were provided with doors and windows. The roofs were made of mud, reed and forest. Every house possessed a well both room courtyard kitchen and first form drainage network.

The houses were more or less typified the aforementioned plan, a square courtyard circular of which a number of rooms. Most every business firm had a bathroom at the footing floor and some even on the first flooring. The bathrooms were continued by a drainage aqueduct to sewers in the chief streets leading to soak-pits. The domestic drainage system and the bathing structures and the outlets are establish to exist very remarkable.

The average size of the basis flooring of a business firm was about xi foursquare metres simply there existed many bigger houses. At that place were some banter-like groups of unmarried roomed tenements at Mahenjo-daro and Harappa like to the coolie lines of Indian tea and other estates. Many public buildings have come up to observe during earthworks. A high pillared hall having an area of eighty sq. feet came to light which is accepted to have been used as an assembly hall for transacting matters of mutual involvement. Another notable building discovered is considered to exist the land granary.

It is 200 feet long and 150 anxiety wide and farther sub-divided into smaller storage blocks for storing different types of grains generally used during the period of food crisis. A nifty public bathroom excavated in Mahenjo-daro is really meaning. It is really thought provoking how such a massive bath as back as 5000 years could be constructed. It is 180 anxiety by 180 anxiety square.

The bricks used were of different sizes. Some were 20 inches past 8 inches and the smaller were 9 inches by four inches. The swell bath is surrounded by a large number of rooms. It has a flight of steps at either end and is fed by a well situated bordering room. At that place were separate drainage systems to flush out waste and muddied water. The actual bathing pool is well-nigh 139 feet in length and 23 anxiety in latitude and the depth is 8 feet.

It is thus presumed that this peachy bath was used past the members of the public on auspicious festive days. The force and the durability of the structure bear witness amply that it could last 5000 years with standing all kinds of ravages of nature. To the Due west of the Swell Bath existed a remarkable group of 27 blocks of brick-work crisscrossed by narrow ventilation channels. This construction is the podium of the neat granary.

Fine art, Craft, Painting and Sculpture:

The people of the Indus Valley civilization had shown equal progress in sculpture, art of pottery, painting and carving. These are sufficiently corroborated from many statues, figures etc. discovered during excavation. The statue of a good for you bull a stiff watch-domestic dog and a shawl-wearing yogi prove that the people were highly adept in the art of sculpture.

The statue of a dancing daughter with her hands on hip and a dancer continuing on her correct leg raising the left leg to the front end typified the standard of the creative value of the people of the Indus Valley civilization. The people had made remarkable progress in the art of pottery. Many beautiful glazed and coloured potteries have been unearthed during the digging.

These potteries are generally regarded equally the primeval example of its kind in the ancient earth. The clay pots were also polished and glazed to give shine like those of the present days. The people of the Indus Valley were very fond of paintings. Their patronage for paintings transpires in the figures of human being beings, animals and other objects of nature. These quality paintings of the painters really surpass all records.

Art of Carving:

The excavation of Mahenjo-daro and Harappa throws a flood of light that the people of Indus valley did non lag behind in the field of engraving of animals on many seals that came to our hand. The engravings were elementary but elegant and the variety is also a matter of surprise. The engraving of bulls, rhino elephants, deer'south etc. on the seals speaks about their skill in this field.

The carving of a humped bull is a unique specimen and information technology symbolizes the realism and simplicity in the process of the engraving. The figures are generally engraved on ivory, lather rock, leather, metal and wood. All these exhibits unmistakably prove that the art of engraving achieved a success during the Indus valley civilization.

The Indus valley people were also well versed in the art of writing. The script followed was pictographic. Though in the seals scripts are plentifully available but in-spite of pain staking try the scholars are non successful in deciphering the scripts for which many important information'south yet remain under darkness.

The ruins and various show of Harappa and Mahenjo-daro reveal a corking deal about social and economical life of the people of Indus valley. On exam of the skulls and bones discovered during excavation it is said that the people were either Dravidians or a branch of Indo-Aryans. Another scholars are of opinion that they were from the same stock of the Sumerians or the Cretans.

It appears that the people were divided into four classes—the learned class, warriors, traders and artisans, and manual labourers or working grade. The learned class included priests, physicians, astrologers. The existence of palaces with aboriginal foundations, of swords of watchmen'south quarters and of aboriginal fort walls points to the second class whose duty was to protect the people.

Probably this form was similar to khatriyas. A commercial class and various artisans such as the mason, engraver, beat out worker, gold smith, weaver, carpenter etc. formed the third class. Domestic servants and manual labourers like leather workers, fishermen, basket makers, peasants, daily wage earners formed the last course. All this corresponds roughly to the four Varna's of the Vedic historic period.

Food:

The people were taking beefiness, mutton, pork, poultry, turtles and tortoises as their chief food. Wheat was their main commodity of food. Barley and palm-date were also familiar. Fish was commonly used and vegetables and fruits seem to have been known though at that place is no positive bear witness.

Dress:

Cotton fabrics were in mutual use but wool was also used. Their wearing apparel was uncomplicated. Men used shawls which were drawn over the left shoulder and under the correct arm so as to leave the correct arm free. It formed the upper garment. The lower garment was like a modernistic dhoti. Their hair was combed backwards and was either cut short or coiled in a knot on the acme of the head. Men kept brusk beards and sometimes the upper lip was shaved.

Ornaments:

The people were fond of ornaments. Both men and women of all classes used necklaces fillets, arm lets, finger rings, and bangles. Girdles nose studs, earrings, and anklets were used by the women alone. There was a dandy variety in the shape and design of these ornaments of the Indus valley people. The rich made the ornaments of gold, silverish, ivory, faience and other semi precious stones similar lapis-lazuli, carnelian, agate and jasper. The poor used ornaments made of copper os beat out and terracotta. People knew the art of toilet and cosmetic.

Toilet jars made of ivory, metal, pottery and rock. Ladies were well acquainted with the toilet culture. Every bit stones were non bachelor there information technology was imported from other places and so was sparingly used. As no scarp of iron is constitute in Mahenjo-daro, this metallic was not known to the people. Indus valley people knew the employ of gold, argent, copper, tin, lead and statuary.

Amusements:

Among amusements dancing with the accessory of the drum, and dice playing was very common. Hunting was practiced as a common game. People were also interested in angling.

Household Manufactures:

The earthen ware vessels of rich diverseness prepared by the potters with the help of their wheel either plain or painted highly glassy with the advent of Chinese lacquer discovered from the Mahenjo-daro speaks of the high standard skill of the people of Mahenjo-daro.

Very oftentimes the pots were ornamented with a pattern of concentric circles in blackness and occasionally with figures of trees, birds and animals. Some of the pottery was ornamented with clay knobs. Vessels of copper, bronze, Silverish and porcelain were known to the people though rarely used.

A large number of bowls, dishes, cups, saucers, vases, basins, pans, jars, jar stands, goblets and stone jars of different size were in use by the people as have been found at that place. Needles and combs made of bone or ivory, axes, chisels, saws, knives, fish hooks, and razors copper and bronze were likewise used past the people.

Clay models of birds, animals, whistles, rattles, men and women etc. were as well discovered from the region. There were wheeled carts and chairs. People used a large number of weights of dissimilar size. They ranged from large ones to exist lifted with a rope to very small-scale ones used past jewelers.

Cubical weights were most mutual. The unit of measurement weight had the value of 8750 grams the largest weight being 10.970 grams. A statuary bar with suspended copper pans was used as a scale. All these weights prove that the decimal system was known to the people of the Indus Valley.

Domestication of Animals:

They had domesticated animals. Humped balderdash, buffalo, sheep, pig, dog, elephant and camels were domesticated. Horse was not domesticated. They used carts in which bullocks were used. The people had learnt the benefit of domesticating animals and therefore widely good the same. It is evident that the people were familiar to wild animals mainly tiger, bear, rhinoceros, hair squirrel and monkey.

Weapons of War:

It is by and large accepted that the Indus Valley people were peace loving. In fact no deadly weapons or defensive weapons similar shield or armor accept discovered during excavation. On the contrary weapons like axe, spear, bows and arrows etc. discovered give indication that the people were disinterested in warfare. Still the weapons so discovered prove that the people of the historic period knew the utilise of copper, bronze. Incidentally they used to utilise a type of sharp pointed and thick sword to protect themselves from external attack.

Disposal of Dead:

During the excavation the remnants discovered advise that the expressionless-bodies used to be disposed of by burning. Some expressionless-bodies were buried nether the footing and some were left exposed and so that animals or birds could consume its flesh and then the bones were buried under the earth. Sir John Marshall said that the procedure of burning was very common to the people.

Position of Women:

Women in the social club were highly respected. The worship of mother goddess indicates that women enjoyed enormous position in the club. They were equally treated like their male person counter-office in the society.

Economical Life:

The bones economy of the people was necessarily agronomical. Cultivation was on an all-encompassing calibration facilitated by the presence of rivers. The principal nutrient grains were wheat, barley, peas, and sesamum. Cotton was also grown. The general diet consisted of fruits, vegetables, animal food including beef, mutton, pork and poultry.

There is clear evidence of the existence of a highly developed system of craft production and distribution. There were specialized groups of potters, copper and bronze workers. The merchants of the Indus Valley carried their trade far beyond their frontiers of the empire and established contacts with other peoples of other civilizations.

Gilded was imported from Mysore. Argent was imported from Afghanistan or Islamic republic of iran, Copper from Rajputana, South Republic of india, Baluchistan and Arabia. Lead-ore was imported from Ajmer and Afghanistan. Jade was nerveless from Primal Asia. Evidence is found of merchandise contacts between the Indus people and Sumerians, Egyptians and other people. Trade between Indus region and Iraq was carried on through the island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf.

The cuneiform dirt tablets speak of the trade through Bahrain have been amply confirmed by mod excavation. At that place was an intermediate trade centre at Magan or Makan identified with Oman or Some other part of S Arabia. Besides copper peacocks were exported in exchange of silver and other bolt from Mesopotamia.

The construction of different categories of buildings and the architectural planning of the town, the employ of different kinds of ornaments fabricated of gold and silver speaks high of the economic standard of the Indus valley people.

Religion:

From the various articles discovered, 1 can safely conclude that the people believed in image worshipping. The image of a female person deity resembles the image of mother goddess which has been identified equally the symbol of "Sakti". A number of statues have been discovered. One is a seminude female figure wearing girdle or band-circular her loins. Those figures represent the Mahadevi of the valley.

Thus the cult of mother goddess seems to have been widely prevalent in the Indus valley. A long seal discovered at Harappa showing the figure of Mother Goddess with a homo holding a dagger. Women present with hands lifted represent the prevalence of human cede. Thus information technology is confirmed that people believed in female energy every bit the source of all creation.

Simultaneously the thought of worshipping male god "Shiva-Pasupati" was popular at that time. On one particular seal we find a effigy with two horns on 2 sides of a tall head dress surrounded past wild animals and sitting in an erect meditative posture or a yoga posture. This speaks of to a certain extent the later formulation of Siva.

Lord Siva is regarded equally the Maha-Yogi and is styled as Pasupati or the Lord of the beasts. The three faces in the figure suggest the concept of trimukha which directly symbolized the Lord Shiva. The discovery of stone pieces which looked exactly similar Shivalinga, has further confirmed the idea of worshipping god shiva past the people of Indus valley.

Apart from the worship of god and goddess the people of Indus valley used to worship certain trees, birds, and animals. Some of the animals were regarded as the 'Vahana' of the Shiva. The bull usually depicted with a single horn was associated with god Shiva. It is strange that the moo-cow so universally worshipped in later Hinduism is no where depicted in the Indus seals.

The great bath of Mahenjo-daro indicates that the people used to actual purify themselves past taking bath on the eve of the religious ceremony before worshipping either goddess or gods.

Mahadevi or God Pasupati:

From the figure of a pipal tree in a seal indicate that the people used to accept pipal tree every bit sacred. The dove was looked upon as sacred. Some form of Naga Worship was also practiced. The representation of Swastik and the wheel on some seals brand us believe that though actual worship of sun was non there but it was represented symbolically.

From the in a higher place mentioned similarities it is no utilise denying that the Hinduism of the present days is highly indebted to the culture and civilization of the Indus Valley. Hence it is justified to think that there is an organic relationship between the aboriginal civilization of the Indus Valley and the Hinduism of today.

Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:

The reject and the autumn of the Indus Civilization was progressive and the city of Mohenjo-Daro was already slowly dying before its ultimate end. Houses mounted on artificial platforms or upon the ruins in their endeavor to check the floods were shoddy in construction, older buildings were subdivided fifty-fifty domestic courtyards were partitioned.

The growing danger of overflowing forced the people living in the areas to migrate to safer places. There are convincing evidence to prove that around 2000 Advertising devastating flood repeatedly appeared in the lower Indus Valley and destroyed this flourishing civilization. Undisputedly, the Indus Valley was desperately affected by flood more than once.

The flood deposits at Chandudaro ostend the contention. The cities were standing on artificial platforms and on the baked brick revetments of the fortifications at Harappa and the mud brick fittings in the foundation of the houses at Mahenjo-daro amply support the theory.

The high loma of silt at Budh Takkar as referred by Sri Sahani only corroborates that such deposits was possible because of unprecedented flood of high magnitude that prolonged unusually. The gradual alluvial building at the river mouths correct from the starting time of the civilization was ultimately responsible for sheet-flooding and consequent sub-emergence of Harappa settlements in low lying areas.

According to 1 school of scholars rainfall gradually declined in the surface area and eventually turned the Sindh into a desert. In such an adverse status the inhabitants were compelled to migrate to suitable places. Thus natural calamity like flood, cyclone, earthquake etc. was responsible for the destruction of such a rich civilisation. Many Harappa's left the Indus and proceeded towards higher regions.

The fierce tribes living in the hills and jungles gradually mustered forcefulness and invaded the rich and unguarded cities of the Indus Valley. They let loose rapine massacre and destruction which compelled the habitants to quit the dwellings and take to heels to safer places. As the inhabitants of Indus Valley were neither war like nor possessed suitable weaponry for their defence, they were unable to repulse theunslaught of the invading tribes including the Aryans.

The complete ruin of the Indus cities could likewise accept been due to the wiping out of their system of agriculture. The rivers might have changed their courses which would make irrigation impossible and ruin the city. To conclude we tin can say that the Indus Valley civilization resembles a groovy deal with those of Arab republic of egypt, Mesopotamia and China.

The developed urban life, the utilise of the potters wheel, kiln-burnt bricks, copper and bronze vessels and pictorial writings are some of the mutual distinct characteristics of all these civilizations. Indus Valley civilization thus has contributed many valuable imprints to the human culture.

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Source: https://www.historydiscussion.net/indus-valley/indus-valley-civilization-town-planning-art-social-life-and-religion/3015

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